Literature Review 3

International Journal of Instruction

July 2010 ● Vol.3, No.2

e-ISSN: 1308-1470

● www.e-iji.net p-ISSN: 1694-609X

KNOWLEDGE OF DIVERSE LEARNERS: IMPLICATIONS FOR

THE PRACTICE OF TEACHING

Fadzilah Abd Rahman, Jon Scaife, Nurul Aini Yahya & Habibah Ab Jalil

Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

fadzilah@educ.upm.edu.my

Knowledge of Diverse Learners (KDL) is increasingly recognized as an essential

component of knowledge base for effective teaching as in today’s schools,

teachers must be prepared to teach a diverse population of student (Banks et al.

2005). In other words, teachers need to be aware that their students in a classroom

are and always have been different from one another in a variety of ways. KDL

refers to an understanding of diversity of students in terms of their abilities and

interests and how they respond to diverse situations; an application of different

teaching strategies; and how various types of classroom activities might be

managed. Although KDL has come to be seen as important, details of its

development, depth and quality among pre-service teachers (PSTs) has remained

something of mystery, as has the capability of PSTs to adapt and employ KDL

into their actual teaching. As an effort to develop coherent understanding of the

feature of prospective teachers regarding KDL, this paper addresses three

questions. First, to what extent are the PSTs prepared for KDL as they are

finishing the teacher education programmes? Secondly, how do the PSTs apply

the KDL in their teaching practices? Thirdly, how do PSTs reflect on their practice

in undertaking the elements of KDL during the teaching practices? This paper

illustrates the results of a study involving a sample of 74 PSTs at a university in

Malaysia. At the beginning of the study, 74 PSTs were given a questionnaire. 11

PSTs have been observed and interviewed. Result indicates that PSTs were able

to develop KDL and show their understanding of it, yet not readily apply such

knowledge in modified situations

Key Words: diverse learners, pre service teachers, perspectives and practices

INTRODUCTION

Diversity is an apart of the nature of the human species, and students are and

always have been different from one another in a variety of ways (Banks et al.,

2005). Recent research studies into effective teaching tend to indicate that

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teaching is not any longer considered as a linear process of transmitting

knowledge from the teacher to students, or from educational materials to

students. In turn, the demands on teachers mean that not only they need to be

able to keep order and provide useful information to students, but also to be

increasingly effective in enabling a diverse group of students to learn ever more

complex material and develop a wider range of skills (Arends, 2004; Rivkin

et

al

., 2000; and Wright, Horn & Sanders, 1997; Barnes, 1989). Clearly, in

today’s schools, teachers must be prepared to teach a diverse population of

students.

Why is knowledge to deal with diverse groups of students such an important

element in teaching? Linked to the idea of a knowledge base for teaching,

Shulman (1987) asserts that in order to teach one needs a breadth and depth of

knowledge of teaching and a rich factual knowledge base with many

interconnections which represent a much more thorough understanding than

that which is achieved purely as a curriculum learner. He refers to this as

pedagogical content knowledge, that is, an understanding of how particular

teaching, subjects, topics, problems, or issues are organized, presented, and

adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for

instruction. This can be seen that teachers have always needed to address the

diverse learning needs of their students; current and projected demographic

trends prompt many educators to believe that awareness of and sensitivity to

diverse learners have become even more pressing needs (Gay, 2003).

In existing classroom situations, pedagogical content knowledge is recognized

as an essential component in assessing pre qualified teachers (PQTs) or in

establishing 'quality teaching'. Moreover, pedagogical content knowledge has

been described as a component of the important ‘knows how’ that PSTs should

develop during their teacher education programme. Carpenter, Fennma,

Peterson, and Carey (1988) claim that pedagogical content knowledge was

positively linked to the students’ achievement. Teachers with stronger

pedagogical content knowledge were found to represent content more

accurately (Gudmundsdottir, 1987, 1990; Wilson and Wineburg, 1988).

Calderhead and Shorrock (1997, p. 13), stressed that developing pedagogical

content knowledge requires not only an understanding of the subject matter, but

also an understanding of children, their abilities and interests and how they tend

to respond to different situations, and an appreciation of different teaching

strategies and how various types of classroom activities might be managed.

Thus, it can be considered that teachers have always needed to address the

diverse learning needs of their students.

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Defining Knowledge of Diverse Learners

Since the early 1980s, the study of teachers’ knowledge has received increasing

attention from educational researchers of various disciplines and of different

school subjects, particularly in the United States, Canada, and other western

countries (Shulman, 1986; Clandinin & Connelly, 1995; Putnam & Borko,

2000). Teachers’ knowledge also has been conceptualised by researchers in

terms of beliefs, practical theories, or knowledge in action (Putnam and Borko,

1996; Schön, 1983). In addition, teachers’ knowledge has been recognised as

teachers’ cognition, which includes metaphors, practical knowledge, beliefs,

images, and events (Carter & Gonzalez, 1993).

In describing a category of knowledge, it is important to note that any

categorization of teachers’ knowledge and beliefs is somewhat arbitrary and

there is no single system for characterising the organization of teachers’

knowledge (Putnam and Borko, 1996). As the KBT has grown, fundamental

concepts of teaching, learning, learners, and subject matter dynamically change.

Thus, there is no definite concept of bounded knowledge base for teaching

(KBT) on which everyone is agreed.

Valli and Tom (1988) claimed that KBT organise the domains of knowledge for

teaching and guides how the knowledge is taught and learned in a teacher

education programme. The phrase KBT is also linked to teacher assessment. In

designing a new assessment of performance for beginning teachers, Reynolds

(1992) first determined the sorts of tasks a beginning teacher should be able to

do and then tried to identify what types of knowledge and skills are required in

order to perform those teaching tasks effectively.

Among seven specific categories of teacher knowledge proposed by Shulman

(1987) (Figure 1), he included a substantial and essential category namely

knowledge of learners, that is, a specific understanding of the learners’

characteristics and how these characteristics can be used to specialise and adjust

instruction.

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Figure1: Teachers’ Knowledge Base Categories (adapted from Shulman, 1987)

Subject Matter K

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Knowledge of LearnerKs nowledge of Educational Ends

General Pedagogical Knowledge

Curriculum Kno

Knowledge of Educational Context

Knowledge Base for Teaching

Knowledge of learners (KLS) consists of different elements namely the

empirical and cognitive knowledge of learners. Empirical or social knowledge

is a knowledge of what children of a particular age range are like, their social

nature, how they behave in classrooms and schools, their interests and

preoccupations, how contextual factors such as non routine events or adverse

weather can have an effect on their works and behaviours, and the nature of the

child-teacher relationship

.

Besides that

, cognitive knowledge of learners consists of two elements. First,

there is the knowledge of theories of child development, which informs

practice. The second element is context-bound to a particular group of learners:

the kind of knowledge that grows from regular contact with these learners, of

what they know, of what they can do, and of what they are likely to be able to

understand. From this kind of knowledge come the skills and processes of

adaptation activities and representations to the needs of particular learners; in

other words of differentiation for differing abilities.

Examining Knowledge of Diverse Learners

The disparity that is often present between the cultural backgrounds of students

and teachers, this disparity in background can be problematic unless teachers

are knowledgeable regarding the commonalities and differences among their

students. We now know that students do not bring the same ways of knowing,

language, family expectations, or strategies for learning to school (Cleary &

Peacock, 1998; Heath & Mangiola, 1991), and there is often a mismatch

between ways of learning at home and ways of learning at school. This

mismatch contributes to students falling behind and failing to meet their

potential as learners (National Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and

Excellence Report, 2003; Viadero, 2004).

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Effective teachers recognize differences among their learners and have the

capacity and willingness to understand the impact of dissimilar backgrounds

and abilities on learning (Wiseman, Cooner and Knight, 1999). With

understanding and appreciation for diversity, successful teachers will be able to

make effective decisions that allow them to respond to their students in

appropriate ways.

As an effort to draw coherent understanding of the features of prospective

teachers regarding KDL, this paper addresses three questions. First, to what

extent are the PSTs prepared for KDL as they are finishing the teacher

education programme? Secondly, how do the PSTs apply the KDL in their

teaching practices? Thirdly, how do PSTs reflect on their practices in

undertaking the elements of KDL during the teaching practices?

METHOD

Based on the purposes and objectives of the study, the data gathering techniques

of questionnaires, non-participant observation, and semi-structured interviews

have be employed.

Participants

The selection of the samples in this study was based mainly on purposive

sampling to build up a sample that was satisfactory for specific purpose, that is,

a group of PSTs were chosen on the basis of their programme, teaching

experience and information that they responded with in the questionnaire. In

order to be more focused, the research sample was narrowed to the PSTs from a

specific Bachelor of Education programme, namely Teaching Malay as a First

Language. The programme of Teaching Malay as a First Language has been

chosen owing to researcher background and experiences in dealing with the

PSTs in that programme. Out of 74 respondents who answered the

questionnaire, 11 were selected and agreed to participate in further observations

and interviews.

Bricolage as a Methodology of Research

Denzin and Lincoln (1994) claim that the experience and background of the

researcher very much reflect the journey of research. According to Denzin and

Lincoln (1994), anyone who has experience of different research ‘paradigms’,

such as positivist, constructivist or action-oriented research, is likely to have

engaged in an ‘overlapping journey’. This ‘overlapping’ gave rise to the notion

of the ‘bricolage’ approach. Bricolage comes from the French word ‘

bricoleur’,

referring to ‘someone who uses whatever tools are at hand to get the job done’

(Levi-Strauss, 1974). In educational research, the term bricolage is commonly

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used to describe the employment of multiple methodologies. Denzin and

Lincoln (2005, p. 5) claim that the use of a combination of methods, data, or

perspectives in a study is a strategy that can add rigor, breadth and depth to any

phenomenon in question. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) claim that 'by

combining methods in one study we can confirm and explain, verify and

generate theory, all at the same time’. In addition, Gorard (2004) points out that

the use of a single method with phenomena presenting multiple appearances is

likely to lead to a fragmented account.

In relation to research of KDL as it is a kind of pedagogical knowledge, the

bricolage approach can be considered appropriate because of the inherent

complexity of KDL. As in the production of a collage, a bricolage approach

aims to create a compilation in order to develop a new picture from different

perspectives (Abd Rahman & Scaife, 2005).

RESULTS

The overall purpose of the study was to provide a coherent understanding

of the nature of knowledge of diverse learners (KDL) among pre service

teachers (PSTs) towards the end of their teacher education programme

from various perspectives. This was achieved by identifying PST self

ratings about their KDL perspective, examining their practices of KDL,

determining how PSTs reflected on their practice in relation to KDL, and

describing PSTs development of their KDL. Thus in this section PSTs’

self ratings of KDL performance, PST practices of KDL and PST

reflections of their KDL practices will be discussed.

Self-Rating of Knowledge of Diverse Learners

Addressing student diversity was one of the two sub components in the KLS,

and results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Pre-Service Teachers Addressing Students' Diversity

n Min. Max M

Teaching goals that address the diversity of students'

ability 74 3 5 4.0

Teaching strategies based on learners' learning styles 74 2 5 3.6

Teaching material matching students' interests 74 3 5 3.8

Teaching material matching students' background 74 2 5 3.6

Designing assessment that are significant for all

students 74 2 5 3.7

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Overall

teaching goals that address the diversity of students’ abilities was the

easiest way for the PSTs to address diversity (M=4.0), while

teaching strategies

based on learners’ learning style

(M=3.6), teaching material matching students

background

(M=3.6), and designing assessments that are significant for all

students

(M=3.7) presented more of a challenge. Thus, we can conclude that

PSTs were able to develop teaching goals that were related to different students’

ability levels, but less able to transform those goals into specific strategies,

materials, and assessments.

Practices of Knowledge of Diverse Learners

For practices of knowledge of diverse learners, observations were based on the

following scale:

3=considerable application inferred –

PST displays thorough knowledge of

students characteristic, their approaches to learning, interest and background;

and assessment criteria and standard are clearly communicated to students

and feedback usually gained

2=moderate application inferred

– PST displays understanding of students

characteristics, their approaches to learning, interests and backgrounds; and

assessment criteria and standard are clearly communicated to students

1=low application inferred –

PST displays generally knowledge of student

characteristic; and assessment criteria and standard have been developed, but

they are either not clear or have not been clearly communicated to students

0=could not be detected –

PSTs display minimal knowledge of students’

characteristics and assessment that proposed contains no clear criteria or

standards

Observations related to the knowledge of learners and self-practices are

summarized in Table 2. There were six specific areas of interest within this

category: learner background, learner interests, learner capabilities, learning

style, multi-level questioning, and using various assessments.

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Table 2. Summary of Observation Regarding KLS Practices

Learners’

B.ground

Learners’

Interest

Learners’

Capabilities

Learnin

g Style

Multi-level

Question.

Various

Assessments

3=Considerable

Application

Inferred

0 0 0 0 0 0

2=Moderate

Application

Inferred

6 6 2 0 1 2

1=Low

Application

Inferred

4 5 8 7 4 4

0=Could Not Be

Detected

1 0 1 4 6 5

Overall, the highest performance was in terms of learners’ backgrounds and

learners’ interests, with six PSTs receiving ratings of moderate application

inferred (the only categories with more than 2 PSTs in this category or higher).

The lowest performance was in the area of multi-level questioning, using

various assessments, and learning styles, with 6, 5, and 4 PSTs receiving the

lowest ratings respectively.

Reflection on Knowledge and Practices of Knowledge of Diverse Learners

In this section of the interview, the interviewees’ survey responses were

examined, and specific questions about their responses were asked. Therefore

there were different questions asked of each PST, although there was some

overlap in terms of the questions asked. The survey responses of ten of the

eleven interviewees led to a question regarding multi-level questions in the

classroom. Many of the students who were asked about this felt that they did

not adequately present questions in a multi-level format, with one noting that:

I normally ask low level question because students could not understand high

level question (Alin)

Others noted that the stated course objectives were more strongly tied to the low

level questions, and therefore that:

I rarely applied them [the higher level questions] because probably I was

afraid that the objective wouldn’t be able to be achieved (Muis)

Seven of the eleven interviewees noted that it is important to assess their

students’ current level of knowledge before teaching a lesson. For example, one

interviewee noted that:

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Think[ing] of the students’ abilities is the most important element (Alin)

Another indicated that:

We have to observe whether the students have been exposed, if they haven’t,

than we need to give the basic knowledge about that subject (Muis, )

In addition, four interviewees indicated that they were satisfied with the way

they controlled the class. Three interviewees indicated that they were most

satisfied in how they had gotten to know their students on an individual basis,

while two indicated that they were very good at developing student motivation.

DISCUSSION

In the interpretation of results, this section first discusses PSTs’ perspectives on

KDL performance, followed by an interpretation of PST practices of KDL. The

final subsection focuses on consistency between PST perspectives and their

KDL practices to determine either if the vision and the reality blend well or the

two were separate entities.

KDL in general had been developed by all PSTs and almost reached the mean

of average level. Teaching practices in general showed, for example, that the

PSTs related good values during the lessons were to be able to write a complete

daily lesson plan and were familiar with the current teaching syllabus. They

were less knowledgeable in gathering feedback from the assessments given and

asking multi-level questions to the students.

Thus it was shown in the literature that teachers had acquired basic abilities but

had lesser knowledge in applying more complex tasks and asking complex

questions of their students. The most challenging practices for the PSTs were

apply teaching strategies based on learners’ learning styles, teaching materials

matching to students’ backgrounds, and designing assessments that were

significant for all students. Perhaps this was because the teaching process for

the PSTs centered more to knowledge transmission than on learning facilitation.

As Gow and Kember (1993) have explained, those who function under the

knowledge transmission orientation focus on content delivery. This does not

allow them to perceive teaching as a facilitative process which assists students

in developing problem solving skills and critical thinking abilities.

KDL practice scores also showed that PSTs had developed teaching goals that

related to student ability levels, but could not convert these goals into specific

materials and approaches to help students improve. Of the more important

general KDL dimensions, PSTs scored lowest in class management and pupil

motivation and highest in teaching approach and strategy.

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Practices also showed that PSTs were able to match the terminology and

language they were using to the students’ attainment level and to make

comparisons between the subject matter and student experiences, but were

having problems creating additional examples related to the subject matter.

Reflection on practices is an important part of constructing KDL. Reflective

practice, as explained by Kane

et al. (2002), allows an examination of teaching

theories and a review on the part of the teacher to reconsider the difficult

problem or experience in the light of new or revised knowledge. As previously

noted, reflective practice requires persistent and careful consideration of the

problem or issue in the light of constructed knowledge and beliefs (Noffke and

Brennan, 1988). It requires reflecting on the problem with an attitude of openmindedness,

taking responsibility for whatever the outcome of the reflection.

The process starts when the PST encounters a complex and difficult experience

or classroom event–one that cannot be adequately addressed immediately and

requires time for resolution.

CONCLUSION

The best performance was in terms of learner background and learner interests,

while the lowest was in the areas of multi-level questioning, using various

assessments, and learning styles. Another area of integration relates to the types

of tasks that the PSTs were able to do, and the results across data sources

indicated that the simpler tasks and responsibilities were being addressed

adequately, while the more complex tasks and responsibilities presented more

of a problem. For example, results from the survey indicated that multi-level

questions presented a problem for these teachers, as was demonstrated in both

the survey data and the observational results. In fact, some of the lowest ratings

that the PSTs received for any of the items on the observational data were for

multi-level questioning. The interview results similarly confirmed that the PSTs

were much more likely to ask direct, low-level questions than multi-level or

high-level questions.

There were two conditions in relation to the consistency of PSTs’ perspectives

and practices of KDL that have been revealed from this study. First, there is a

condition where PSTs perspectives were compatible with their practices.

Second, there was a condition where PSTs believed they had developed a good

KDL whereas their perspectives were not compatible with their practices. In

other words when PSTs believed they are good in certain dimension it is not

necessarily true in actual practices.

In relation to the first condition, from the perspectives of the PSTs, their

perceptions as related to their practices were closely aligned. Specifically, as

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reflected to their self-ratings versus their actual practices, their perceptions

indicated that the PSTs felt least confident in their proficient to deal with

student diversity. This was demonstrated in their practices, through the

observations as well. In summary, PSTs’ perspectives and their practices of

KDL were very much in line with each other.

On the other hand, referring to the second condition, they believed that they had

developed a good knowledge but this is just their perception which was clearly

higher than the reality. While their scores were good, they were still a little

below average in the practices.

In summary, it was concluded from the analysis that PSTs underwent

significant promising learning during the teacher education programme and

adequately met challenges in confidence and skill building in the area of KDL.

The one aspect in need of the most improvement, however, was found to be the

application of reflective skills for improving their practices because PSTs

needed more confidence in their newly constructed skill (KDL) as they were

hesitant to approach others to discuss the problems. It is therefore recommended

that teacher education programmes include more practices on reflective skill

building to develop the type of reflective skills that will result in continuous,

life-long development of performance. PSTs should be exposed to real

situations involving multiple components of KDL development. Teacher

educator roles are to help them to see the problems of practice that the situation

presents.

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 International Journal of Instruction July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
e-ISSN: 1308-1470 ● www.e-iji.net p-ISSN: 1694-609X
THE IMPACT OF YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE ON
THE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT APPROACHES OF
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
Zafer Ünal
USF St. Petersburg, USA
unal@mail.usf.edu
Aslihan Ünal
Uşak University, Turkey
asli@zunal.com
This study provided a basis for answering the following essential question: Does
the years of experience affect teachers' classroom management approaches? Data
were collected from 268 primary school teachers. The findings of this study
demonstrated that experienced teachers are more likely to prefer to be in control in
their classrooms than beginning teachers while interacting with students when
making decisions. Investigating the previous studies, researchers were able to
discover that there is certain path teachers follow through their career. While
preservice teachers prefer non-interventionism (minimum teacher control), they
support interactionism (shared control) during internship and early career years,
and finally they prefer to choose complete teacher control when they become
experienced teachers.
Key Words: classroom management, classroom management approaches, teachers,
teaching, education
INTRODUCTION
Researchers generally describe “Classroom Management” as the full range of
teacher efforts to oversee classroom activities, including learning, social
interaction, and student behaviour (Burden, 2005; Good & Brophy, 2006).
Doyle (2006) adds that classroom management revolves around teachers’ and
students’ attitudes and actions that influence students’ behaviours in the
classroom. Brophy (1986) also defines classroom management as a teacher’s
efforts to establish and maintain the classroom as an effective environment for
teaching and learning. Savage and Savage (2009) define classroom management
as two level of management: (a) the prevention of problems, (b) responses when
problems do occur. Their focus is on prevention of problems more because of
42 The Impact of Years of Teaching Experience…
International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
previous research which indicates that one of the key variables in successful
classrooms is an emphasis on preventative, rather than reactive, management
techniques (Emmer & Stough, 2001). Regardless of differences in the
definition, the value of classroom management knowledge for teachers has been
consistently supported through research literature (Brophy & Evertson, 1976;
Shinn, Walker, & Stoner, 2002; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993) and
classroom management strategies have been referred to as “the most valuable
skills set a teacher can have” (Landau, 2001, p.4).
Research findings continuously have shown that one of the keys to success in
teaching is the teacher's ability to manage the classroom and to organize
instruction (Brophy, 1988; Cakmak, 2008; Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham,
2000). A meta-analysis of the past 50 years of classroom research identified
classroom management as the most important factor, even above student
aptitude, affecting student learning (Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1994). For
instance, in the US, it continues to be identified by the public as one of the top
three problems facing public schools (Bushaw & Gallup, 2008). In fact, in three
of the last six years, it has been ranked second only to funding as the biggest
problem in schools (Bushaw & Gallup, 2008; Rose & Gallup, 2005). It is
possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers, and indeed
experiencing problems in this area causes many people to leave teaching
altogether (Johns, McNaughton, & Karabinus, 1989).
Years of Teaching Experience and Classroom Management
Classroom management is not a gift bestowed upon some teachers and though it
is true that some teachers adapt to classroom management techniques easily,
classroom management is a skill that can be gained through training and many
years of experience in the field (Bosch, 2006). Experienced teachers indentify
the establishment of classroom management as one of the major goals that
needs to be accomplished in the first week of the year. Beginning teachers cite
classroom management as one of their most serious challenges. School
administrators indicate poor classroom management as a major reason for low
evaluations as well as primary reason why teachers are not hired (Savage &
Savage, 2009).
A number of studies have found that classroom management is a primary area
in which beginning teachers feel underprepared (Britt, 1997; Jacques, 2000;
Ladd, 2000; Savage & Savage, 2009). Beginning teachers report that poor
classroom management skills (82%) and disruptive students (57%) are the most
significant barriers to professional success (Fideler & Haskelhorn, 1999).
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
In a recent national survey of over 6,000 teachers with less than three years of
experience, over 40% of the respondents indicated that they were either
somewhat prepared in the area of classroom management or not prepared at all
(Cleveland, 2008). Although teachers prepared in traditional programs complete
coursework in education and student teaching, Gee (2001) and Smith (2000)
found that teachers and preservice teachers identify discipline and classroom
management as two areas beginning teachers fear most about their first year of
teaching. Ladd (2000) reported that the issue of the classroom management was
the area in which administrators expressed the greatest concern regarding new
teachers’ classroom skills. Ingersoll and Smith (2004) noted that 15% of all
beginning teachers leave teaching by the end of their first year. Moreover,
approximately 33% of all teachers leave the profession in the first three years of
teaching and 50% within the first five (National Commission on Teaching and
America’s Future, 2003). Many of these teachers list problems with classroom
management as a significant factor influencing their decision to leave their
profession (Jones, 2006).
On the other hand, experienced teachers are believed to have combined years of
service and a repertoire of classroom skills and strategies. They typically have
the ability to prioritize tasks and to attend selectively to a number of key
classroom matters (Hagger & McIntyre, 2000). They generally are able to
manage the dynamic nature of a classroom setting and to deal effectively with
the most salient aspect of a classroom—unpredictability (Doyle, 1986).
Compared to beginning teachers, experienced teachers tend to be less hesitant
(Carter, Cushing, Sabers, Stein, & Berliner, 1988) and more flexible and
adaptable (Kerrins & Cushing, 2000). In addition, beginning teachers are
sometimes less able to work with speed, fluidity, and flexibility or to have
mental models that permit large amounts of information to be accessed and
handled effectively (Sabers, Cushing, & Berlinder, 1991). According to the
literature, it takes between four and seven years of experience for an individual
to develop into a competent teacher (Carter & Doyle, 1995; Gonzalez & Carter,
1996; Varrella, 2000).
Theoretical Framework
Glickman and Tamashiro (1980) and Wolfgang (1995) conceptualized a
framework to explain teacher beliefs regarding child development. Their
continuum illustrates three approaches to classroom interaction—Non-
Interventionist, Interventionist, and Interactionalist ranging from low teacher
control to high teacher control. While teachers may demonstrate characteristics
of each category in different situations, they are likely to use one approach more
often than others (Wolfgang, 1995).
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
The Non-Interventionists believe that the child has an inner drive that needs to
find its expression in the real world (Wolfgang, 2005). As a result, noninterventionists
suggest that students should be allowed to exert significant
influence in the classroom and that teachers should be less involved in adjusting
student behaviours (Ritter & Hancock, 2007). According to Witcher et al.
(2002) teachers adhering to the non-interventionist orientation are considered
student-oriented and tend to employ tactics considered to use minimal teacher
power. Children are seen to have an inner potential, and opportunities to make
decisions enable personal growth (Burden, 1995). The main aim of discipline is
to socialize young children and help them to construct their own values (Kohn,
1996; Rodd, 1996), to teach students to cooperate with others and to develop
integrity to make ethical choices and the confidence to act on their values
(Ginott, 1972; Gordon, 1974; Gartrell, 1998). Berne’s (1964) and Harris’s
(1967) transactional analysis approach and Ginott’s (1972) view of building
children’s self-concept by congruent communication are examples of noninterventionist
approach.
At the opposite end of the continuum are Interventionists, those who are
considered to be teacher-oriented and tend to take control of the situation by
implementing immediate a disciplinary tactic to control the behaviour (Witcher
et al., 2002). According to Ritter and Hancock (2007), interventionists believe
that students learn appropriate behaviours primarily when their behaviours are
reinforced by teacher-generated rewards and punishments. The Canter Model:
Assertively Taking Charge by Canter (1992) or The Fred Jones Model: Body
Language, Incentive Systems, and Providing Efficient Help (Jones, 1987) are
examples of the interventionist approach. According to the Canter (1992), the
climate of positive support and care is best provided by the careful application
of assertive discipline. It replaces teacher inertia and hostile behaviour with
firm, positive insistence.
Midway between these two extremes, Interactionalists focus on what the
individual does to modify the external environment, as well as what the
environment does to shape the individual. Interactionalists strive to find
solutions satisfactory to both teacher and students, employing some of the same
techniques as non-interventionists and Interventionists (Glasser, 1986).
Theories developed by Adler, Dreikurs, and Glasser provide the framework for
Interactionalist ideology (Wolfgang, 1995). Cooperative Discipline (Albert,
1989) and Judicious Discipline (Gathercoal, 1990) are examples of classroom
management models based on Interactionalist ideology. While it is assumed that
teachers believe and act according to all three approaches, one usually
predominates (Wolfgang, 1995; Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980).
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
The Dimensions of Classroom Management
To measure teachers’ interventionist, non-interventionist, and interactionalist
orientations, Martin, Yin, and Baldwin (1998) developed the Attitudes and
Beliefs on Classroom Control (ABCC) Inventory and later improved and
renamed it as Behaviour and Instructional Management Scale (BIMS) (Martin
& Sass, 2010). Martin and Sass (2010) defined the term classroom management
with two broad dimensions: instructional management, behaviour management.
This study also follows the same definition of multifaceted construct that
includes two broad dimensions: instructional and behaviour management.
Instructional management includes aspects of classroom life such as
establishing daily procedures, allocating materials, and monitoring students'
independent work (Martin & Sass, 2010). Well-planned lessons that provide
for a smooth flow of instruction delivered at a sustained pace help to prevent
off-task behaviours. The manner in which tasks are managed contributes to the
general classroom atmosphere and classroom management style (Burden, 1995;
Weinstein & Mignano, 1993).
Behaviour management is any pre-planned intervention aimed at preventing
misbehaviour. It is a means of preventing misbehaviour rather than a reaction to
misbehaviour. Specifically, this facet includes setting rules, establishing a
reward structure, and providing opportunities for student input (Martin & Sass,
2010).
Objectives
The primary objective of this study was to investigate differences in classroom
management perceptions and beliefs of elementary school teachers based on
their years of teaching experiences. The following question guided the study.
• Are there any differences between the beginning and experienced
teachers regarding their classroom management approaches?
METHODS
Sample
The participants of this study were 268 elementary school teachers (74.4%
female and 26.4% male). The age distribution of the participants was 22 - 49
(with the average 35.5). Driven by the interval data, participants were grouped
into five based on their years of teaching experience (Group 1: 0-5 years of
experience, Group 2: 6-10, Group 3: 11-15, Group 4: 16-20, Group 5: 21 or
more). The detailed demographics of participants are provided in Table 1.
46 The Impact of Years of Teaching Experience…
International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
Table 1: Demographics of study participants
Groups: Based on
Years of Teaching Experience
Age Gender
n μ sd F M
Group 1: 0-5 years 91 25.03 2.501 69.2% 30.8%
Group 2: 6-10 years 55 29.76 1.170 81.8% 18.2%
Group 3: 11-15 years 43 34.19 1.592 62.8% 37.2%
Group 4: 16-20 years 41 38.93 .877 78.1% 21.9%
Group 5: 21-more 38 47.66 4.795 78.9% 21.1
All Participants 268 35.54 8.628 74.4% 26.4%
Grade Taught 1st: 41 2nd : 44 3rd: 63 4th: 63 5th: 58
Instrument
According to Martin and Sass (2010), two instruments existed in the history of
classroom management research, the Pupil Control Ideology (PCI) and the
Beliefs on Discipline Inventory (BDI). However, both scales are focused on the
narrower concept of discipline rather than the broader construct of classroom
management (Martin & Sass, 2010). Based on the Beliefs on Discipline
Inventory (Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980), Martin and colleagues worked on
developing the Behaviour and Instructional Management Scale (BIMS) over the
years (Baldwin & Martin, 1994; Martin, Yin, & Baldwin, 1998; Martin, Yin, &
Mayall, 2007; Martin & Sass, 2010). BIMS is currently the most recent version
of the instruments that have been refined and tested over the years based on
feedback received from previous studies (Martin & Sass, 2010). In developing
the BIMS Inventory, Martin and Sass (2010) conducted a preliminary validity
study of the instrument and concluded that the BIMS Inventory has been shown
to be a reliable, valid instrument useful in the empirical examination of
classroom management styles. According to Martin and Sass (2010), the
analysis of the Behaviour Management subscale of BIMS revealed good
internal consistency (α = .774), with an average inter-item correlation of .377
(sd = .091) and results for the Instructional Management subscale also showed a
good internal consistency for the six items (α = .770), with an average interitem
correlation of .365 (sd = .092). During this study, reliability coefficients
for the two scales of the BIMS were found to be .721 and .748 for Behaviour
Management and the Instructional Management, respectively (Martin & Sass,
2010). A copy of the BIMS inventory and permission of its use was received
from the original author of the instrument (Martin & Sass, 2010). The inventory
was then translated into Turkish language by the two researchers and submitted
for review to two external professors in the same department to ensure that the
instrument has the semantic equivalence across languages, conceptual
equivalence across cultures, and normative equivalence to the source survey
(Behling & Law, 2000). A final copy of translated BIMS was agreed upon to be
used for this study.
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
Procedures
The study was carried out in Usak, a city in the western Anatolian region of
Turkey. Data for this study were collected from 268 certified elementary
education teachers employed by nineteen primary schools in Usak, a city in the
western Anatolian region of Turkey. Two hundred sixty-eight fully completed
responses were received (74% response rate) within the due date. Schools were
re-visited to pick up the copies and 76 blank copies were retained with the total
of 18 lost in the mail, never sent etc.
As there are limitations with all research, these studies are no exception. The
study examined only years of experience aspects of teachers’ classroom
management beliefs and it did not control other variables related to teachers’
change. In addition, the study was carried out in Usak, a city in the western
Anatolian region of Turkey. Data for this study were collected from 268
certified primary education teachers employed by nineteen primary schools in
Usak, a city in the western Anatolian region of Turkey. Therefore, the results of
this study could only be generalizable to study sample.
RESULTS
This study investigated the differences in attitudes toward classroom
management between beginning and experienced teachers, and male and female
teachers. Data were analysed using a series of one-way ANOVA and
correlations. Analyses determined significant differences on the behaviour and
instructional management subscales. The results are provided below.
Differences in attitudes toward classroom management based on the years of
teaching experience
The results of the study indicated that teachers showed significantly different
attitudes toward the Behaviour and Instructional Management subscales of
classroom management based on their years of teaching experience. There was
a statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way
between subjects ANOVA on both behaviour (F (4,263) = 874.462, p = .000)
and instructional management ((F (4,263) = 874.462, p = .000) (Table 2).
Table 2: Comparison of beginning and experienced teachers on behavioural and
instructional management
Group Group 1
0-5 years
Group 2
6-10
years
Group 3
11-15
years
Group 4
16-20
years
Group 5
21-more
f p
Behaviour
Management
μ = 3.64
sd: .675
μ = 4.69
sd: .767
μ = 5.56
sd: .502
μ = 5.93
sd: .264
μ = 5.95
sd: .226
874.46 .000*
Instructional
Management
μ = 3.27
sd: .518
μ = 4.40
sd: .735
μ = 5.12
sd: .498
μ = 5.78
sd: .419
μ = 5.92
sd: .359
692.93 .000*
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
In order to learn which specific groups differed from each other, a Tukey posthoc
test applied. The test revealed significant differences for all groups except
Groups 4 and 5 on both behaviour Group 4 (μ = 5.93 SD: .264) and Group 5 (μ
= 5.95 SD: .226) and instructional management Group 4 (μ = 5.78 SD: .419)
and Group 5 (μ = 5.92 SD: .359).
Taken together, these results suggest that teachers are found to be more
controlling (interventionist) as they experience on both behaviour and
instructional management subtests. Results also indicated that both beginning
and experienced teachers are more controlling on behaviour management than
instructional management.
In order to confirm the relationship, a Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient was computed. There was a positive correlation between the groups,
on both behaviour and instructional management (Table 3). In other words, we
found that here is a positive correlation between the years of teaching
experience and scores received on behaviour management and instructional
management confirming the relationship that as teachers became more
experienced, they also become more controlling on both behavioural and
instructional management.
Table 3: Pearson product-moment correlations of the BIMS subscales with
years of experiences
Group n r p
Behaviour Management 268 .874 .000**
Instructional Management 268 .196 .000**
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
These significances between the two groups on behaviour and instructional
management subsets indicates that years of experience have significant effect
on teachers' beliefs and attitudes on each subset. The high scores on both
subtests showed that both beginning and experienced teachers prefer to be
mostly in control and make the rules themselves, but they also interact with the
students to allow time for students to control their behaviour.
DISCUSSIONS
Teachers’ beliefs are important for understanding and improving educational
processes because they are closely linked to teachers’ strategies on how they
shape students’ learning environment, influence student motivation and
achievement and manage their classrooms. Understanding beliefs and attitudes
of teachers can also be great help in determination of teachers’ actual behaviour
and practices in the classroom (Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980). For example:
Fang (1996) reaches a conclusion in a meta-analysis of research on teachers’
belief and actions that “teachers’ beliefs always lead to teachers actions that
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
impact students’ learning – for better or worse” (p. 59). In an effort to inform
teacher education practices, this study explored the role of years of experience
and gender on teachers’ classroom management beliefs. The findings of the
study are interesting in several regards.
Overall, none of the groups seems to favour student oriented management style
(Non-Interventionism)
According to the first finding of this study, none of the teacher groups were
found to be non-interventionist on the two subscales of classroom management
(Behaviour Management, Instructional Management). Simply put, neither set of
the teachers believed that educators should provide students with opportunities
to make choices and be responsible for their own learning (Biehler & Snowman,
1986). Although participants in this study were open to interacting with the
students (Interactionist), none of the groups were in favour of allowing students
to have maximum control, or to have the primary responsibility of developing
their own rules. They did not believe that teachers should provide a classroom
environment in which students are allowed, and even encouraged, to express
their inner feelings freely. This finding supports the previous studies of Bailey
and Johnson (1999), Swanson, O'Connor, and Cooney (1990), and Martin and
Baldwin (1993).
Teachers with higher number of years of teaching experience are found to be
favouring maximum teacher control (Interventionism) more than that of others.
Additional analysis of the data revealed that “years of experience” plays a
significant role on teachers’ beliefs on choosing their classroom management
style. While teachers with less experience were found to be interactionist on
each scale, experienced teachers scored consistently as interventionist. In other
words, beginning teachers showed that they favour shared responsibility for
classroom control, shared work on developing classroom rules, focused on not
only behaviours but also feelings, and paid attention to what the individual does
to alter the external milieu, as well as what the environment does to shape the
individual (Cakiroglu & Gencer, 2007; Martin & Baldwin, 1992) . On the other
hand, experienced teachers choose to believe in maximum teacher
responsibility; focus on more on the behaviour to quickly redirect it to positive,
choosing traditional behaviour management (Swanson, O'Connor, & Cooney,
1990).
As teachers experienced, they become more controlling on both behaviour and
instructional management.
The findings also indicated that teachers tend to change their belief as they gain
experience over the time and they tend to choose the path of interventionism
50 The Impact of Years of Teaching Experience…
International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
(teacher control). In order to confirm this finding, researchers investigated the
correlation between the years of experience and the classroom management
beliefs and found out that there is a positive correlation between the years of
teaching experience and scores received on each scale. Therefore, the results
conclude that as teachers became more experienced, they become more
controlling on both behaviour and instructional management. This conclusion
also supports the findings of the study previous studies suggesting that teachers
become more interventionist as they gain more experience (Horak & Roubinek,
1982), beginning teachers tend to respond in ways that are less directive and
obtrusive than their experienced counterparts (Swanson, O'Connor, & Cooney,
1990), and new teachers appear to be patient, share responsibility, and interact
with students while experienced teachers tend to react in a manner that could be
classified as more interventionist in nature (Martin & Baldwin, 1993).
Implications of this study
Implications of this study point to the important role of teachers' experiences on
their classroom management beliefs. When put together, numerous studies
shows that teachers have a tendency to change their classroom management
beliefs at different levels of experience following a certain path. Often,
preservice teachers begin their traditional teacher education programs (four- or
five-year Bachelor of Education programs) favouring non-interventionism
(Cakiroglu & Gencer, 2007; Etheridge, James, & Bryant, 1981; Martin &
Baldwin, 1992; Savran & Cakiroglu, 2003). However, when they become
student teachers (internships and practicum experience), which enables them to
interact with real classroom experience with real classroom students; they
change to favour mostly interactionism (Martin & Baldwin, 1994; Martin &
Yin, 1997). Ironically, changes still occur when these teachers are hired for
their first teaching positions, causing new teachers to rate between
interactionism and interventionism (Celep, 1997; Laut, 1999; Martin, Yin &
Mayall, 2007). Finally, experienced teachers are the ones who are found to be
the most interventionist (Martin, Yin, & Mayall, 2007; Swanson, O'Connor, &
Cooney, 1990; Ritter & Hancock, 2007)
The constant change of teachers' classroom beliefs over time indicates that there
is a disconnection between education students' beliefs toward classroom
management during their coursework and the time they begin to gain real
experience in schools. This raises the questions: “Why does classroom belief
differ over time?” and “Why the change seems to be always from noninterventionism
during coursework to interactionism during field work and first
seven years of teaching and to interventionism when they are fully
experienced?”
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
It is not the intention of this study to determine the best classroom management
approach among the three views. Previous studies that tried to investigate this
topic concluded that teachers should have the knowledge, skills and practice in
each approach and be able to implement each strategy in their classrooms
(Christiansen, 1996; Jones, 1996; Stough, 2006).
However, results of this study show that even though most beginning teachers
seems to be favouring one classroom management approach (noninterventionism-
student oriented), they seem to be choosing the opposite way as
they gain experience (interventionism - teacher controlled). For example,
teacher education programs seem to be trying to offer activities and instructions
for their preservice teachers focusing on non-interventionism or mixed
classroom management strategies (both teacher- and student-controlled)
(Christiansen, 1996). On the other hand, beginning teachers start working in
the classrooms and find themselves more traditional, with full teachercontrolled
schools, and have minimal to no opportunity to experience noninterventionism
(Eddy, 1969; Featherstone, 1993; Johnson & Kardos, 2002;
Long & Frye, 1989; ). Another reason could be that beginning teachers try to
implement non-interventionism approach in their classroom but because of the
lack of support and / or because they feel more secure when they follow their
colleagues with the assertive discipline model, they follow interactionism
(Martin & Baldwin, 1994; Witcher et al., 2002). Finally, over the years, these
teachers end up choosing interventionism (full teacher control) as their main
classroom management approach and become a model of incoming new
teachers (Laut, 1999).
If the teacher education programs are trying to break this path by producing
teachers with the knowledge, skill and practice in each approach and have their
graduates continue to practice each model in their classrooms without fully
adopting themselves to assertive discipline model accepted by public schools,
this study offers the following suggestions.
Coursework for Preservice & Professional Development for Inservice Teachers
focusing on Classroom Management Approaches
In order to support preservice teachers in their attempt to learn and implement
research-based classroom management strategies, teacher education programs
should be able to review their curriculum activities on classroom management
and make changes if necessary. If preservice teachers tend to have difficulty
incorporating research-based instructional strategies and often revert to those
observed during their own school years, then program curriculum should allow
a framework of planning, implementation, feedback, and reflection to try
research-based teaching practices from their methods courses and examine their
notions of effective pedagogy (Brock & Grady, 1995; Cole, 1991; Corcoran,
52 The Impact of Years of Teaching Experience…
International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
1981; Sergiovanni, 1995). Similar strategy is suggested for the Professional
Development courses. These courses should provide preservice and new
inservice teachers with the opportunity to learn about research based classroom
management strategies by including adequate conceptualization of the research
based critical content – not as discrete skills, but as a complete approach to
management so that they lay a strong foundation.
New Teacher, Old Culture
Teacher education programs often tend to be constrained by the brutal reality
that the experienced teachers allowing placements in their classrooms often
expect their student teachers/interns to largely follow classroom norms and
practices already in place (Eddy, 1969; Lawson 2002). Phrases like “learning
the ropes” and “eased entry” suggest that internship during the teacher
education program and mentoring new teachers (induction) is about helping
teacher candidates fit into the existing system. In other words, student teachers
and new teachers are usually faced with an existing culture that simply dictates,
in no uncertain terms, “the way we do things around here.” These new teachers
or teacher candidates spend more time adjusting into the existing culture rather
than trying out their newly learned strategies (Johnson & Kardos, 2002).
Therefore, even if we object to the passivity of the new teacher that such
formulations imply, we still need to think about who is “teaching the ropes” and
what they are teaching. What implicit and explicit messages do new teachers
receive about teaching in this school and district regarding classroom
management? How do interactions with colleagues, supervisors, and students
strengthen or weaken new teachers' disposition toward students' learning and
the new teachers' motivation to continue developing as teachers? Whether the
early years of teaching are a time of constructive learning or a period of coping,
adjustment, and survival depends largely on the working conditions and culture
of teaching that new teachers encounter (Ball & Cohen, l999; Feiman-Nemser,
2003). Thus, opportunities for variety and experimentation are limited.
However, it is important to recognize that new teachers are just as accountable
for the learning of their students as the experienced teachers and they need
experience with the effective and research-based instructional practices and
prefer not to spend several years trying to discover them.
CONCLUSION
This study examined and compared the beliefs of beginning (zero to seven years
of experience) and experienced (eight years and more) teachers toward
classroom management on two dimensions (behavioural and instructional
management). The results indicated that overall there is no significant
differences between male and female teachers on their classroom management
beliefs on behaviour and management scale. Both female and male teachers
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International Journal of Instruction, July 2012 ● Vol.5, No.2
were found to be favouring maximum teacher control on behaviour
management (Interventionism), and mixed control - shared responsibility - on
instructional management (Interactionism). However, this also indicates that
both female and male teachers were found to be more controlling on behaviour
management than instructional management. The finding of this study
demonstrated that experienced teachers are more likely to prefer to be in control
in their classrooms than beginning teachers while interacting with students
when making decisions. Investigating the previous studies, researchers were
able to discover that there is certain path that teachers follow through their
career. In other words, teachers have a tendency to change their classroom
management beliefs at different levels of experience following a certain path.
While preservice teachers prefer non-interventionism (minimum teacher
control), they support interactionism (shared control) during internship and
early career years, and finally they seems to favour complete teacher control
more than others as they gain more teaching experience. The study suggest that
the constant change of teachers' classroom beliefs over time indicates that there
is a disconnection between education students' beliefs toward classroom
management during their coursework and the time they begin to gain real
experience in schools.
This study offers suggestions for teacher education programs to consider
changes regarding the need for program revision, offering stand alone
classroom management courses rather than integrating with other classes,
teaching research-based curriculum, helping preservice teachers focus more on
unfamiliar strategies and encourage the application during the field work, and
framing classroom observations and evaluations as process rather than
summative evaluation. Thus, the results of this study can be useful to teacher
educators helping them understand the concerns of beginning teachers and
experienced teachers alike. Such understanding should lead to changes in
teacher education programs, better preparation of preservice teachers, better
assistance during their beginning years of teaching, and the improved
professional development for teachers at all experience levels.
Some questions still remain unasked and unanswered. How do personality
variables effect classroom management? Do teachers' beliefs about classroom
management styles match their behaviours in the classroom? These questions
should be answered in future studies. Such research findings can help teacher
education programs and educators in revising their program or practicum
experiences, resulting in enhancing teachers' conceptual understanding of
management for successful teaching.
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Appendix: Behavior and Instructional Management Scale
Directions: For each statement below, please mark the response that best
describes what you do in the classroom. There is no right or wrong answers, so
please respond as honestly as possible (Strongly Agree, Agree, Slightly Agree,
Slightly Disagree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree).
Group Statement
BM I nearly always intervene when students talk at inappropriate times during class.
IM I use whole class instruction to ensure a structured classroom.
BM I strongly limit student chatter in the classroom.
IM I nearly always use collaborative learning to explore questions in the classroom. *
BM I reward students for good behavior in the classroom.
IM I engage students in active discussion about issues related to real world applications.*
BM If a student talks to a neighbour, I will move the student away from other students.
IM I establish a teaching daily routine in my classroom and stick to it.
BM I use input from students to create classroom rules.*
IM I nearly always use group work in my classroom.*
BM I allow students to get out of their seat without permission.*
IM I use student input when creating student projects.*
BM I am strict when it comes to student compliance in my classroom.
IM I nearly always use inquiry-based learning in the classroom.*
BM I firmly redirect students back to the topic when they get off task.
IM I direct the students' transition from one learning activity to another.
BM I insist that students in my classroom follow the rules at all times.
IM I nearly always adjust instruction in response to individual student needs.*
BM I closely monitor off task behavior during class.
IM I nearly always use direct instruction when I teach.
BM I strictly enforce classroom rules to control student behavior.
IM I do not deviate from my pre-planned learning activities.
BM If a student's behavior is defiant, I will demand that they comply with my classroom
rules.
IM I nearly always use a teaching approach that encourages interaction among students.*
*Item is reverse scored.